The Camelidae family is a comparatively small family of mammalian animals. There are two members of Old World camels living in Africa and Asia–the Arabian and the Bactrian. There are four members of the New World camels of South America–llamas, vicunas, alpacas and guanacos. They are all very well adapted to their respective environments. Most of these species have been integrated into and play very important roles in lives of the indigenous people. They have been traditionally used for transport of people and things, to supply hides and fibers for clothing, other textile articles, and meat and milk products. The animals have been used and bred for several thousand years, but the efforts to understand their biology and diseases in greater depth has been only been done fairly recently. Because camels are still such important animals in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, there has been more interest and need to understand their nutrition and health care needs, reproduction, behavior, physiology, diseases, veterinary care and responses to new climates. This bibliography has been compiled to address these issues. Camels are large-hooved mammals living in the desert regions of North America and Asia. There are two types of camels in existence today: the Dromedary or Arabian camel and the Bacterian camel. The Dromedary or Arabian camel has one hump on its back and the Bacterian camel has two humps. The humps on a camel’s back store fat and flesh that is absorbed as nutrition while food is not available. The camel is known for being able to go without water for several days at a time. The hump in the Arabian camel rises to about twelve inches above the back, and the camel can stand about seven feet tall at the shoulders. The Bacterian camel is about five feet tall to the shoulders and usually has a heavier body. These camels have been around since the ancient times.

Arabian camels are found from Northwest India and the lowland of Afghanistan to the Arabian Peninsula and Somalia to the South and Westward African deserts. There are approximately 25,000 wild camels that still remain since their introduction in 1840 to 1907. Arabian camels survive in the desert due to the structure and qualities. They have the ability to bite off and eat the thorny plants that exist in the desert. The thick callouses on their knees and chest and the thick sole pads allow them to cope with the hot sand. The eyes are covered by really long eyelashes.

The rocky and cooler regions are better for the Bacterian camel, due to its smaller, heavier build. The feet are split and its hair is finer and longer. Central Asia and Mongolia are the central areas of the Bacterian camels, and there are fewer than 1,000 Bacterian camels in the wild. The continuing existence of the Bacterian camel is remarkable since it has to endure such different climate changes, like 140 degrees Fahrenheit, to the Arctic cold in the winter.

The camel’s strength is very remarkable and makes it a very valuable animal. The Bacterian camel can carry as much as 1,000 pounds and travel about 29 miles a day. The Arabian camel can travel as far as 100 miles a day and is usually used as a saddle animal. The camel hide is usually used for leather, and the milk and fat are usually used as food. After their hair is shed, it can be used for paintbrushes, warm clothes, and ropes.

Camelidae Family

The Camelidae evolved in North America. Their ancestors migrated from North America across the Alaskan land bridge to Asia and down across Panama into South America. They eventually became extinct in North America, but adapted well and evolved to their current forms. At one time the camels ranged from Asia to Eastern Europe. After crossing into Africa, they were found across the northern area and as far south as northern Tanzania.

Taxonomy

Camels are in the taxonomic order Artiodactyla (even toed ungulates), sub order Tylopoda (pad-footed), and Family Camlidae. They are ruminants along with the giraffes, deer, cattle, sheep, goats and antelopes. They have several unique features: they walk on pads not hoofs, do not have horns or antlers, and their red blood cells are oval in shape. They also have very high red blood cell counts. All the family members have great water efficiency, long necks, two toes, and well-padded feet. Finally, a camel’s toes have a web connecting them.

The New World camels include two wild species in the high Andes of South America. They are the vicuna (Lama vicugna) and the guanaco (Lama guanacoe). The native people of the Andes domesticated the llama (Lama glama) and the alpaca (Lama pacos). There seems to be some controversy over the parent species of the alpaca and llama. The evidence suggests that both domestic species were derived from the guanaco. They all have long necks, but no humps. They do have the ability to survive in harsh dry climates due to their ability to conserve their body water.

The camel is a large, strong desert animal. Camels can travel great distances across hot, dry deserts with little food or water. They walk easily on soft sand where trucks would get stuck, and carry people and heavy loads to places that have no roads. Camels also serve the people of the desert in many other ways.

The camel carries its own built-in food supply on its back in the form of a hump. The hump is a large lump of fat that provides energy if food is hard to find.

There are two chief kinds of camels: (1) the Arabian camel, also called dromedary, which has one hump, and (2) the Bactrian camel, which has two humps. In the past, hybrids (crossbreeds) of the two species were used widely in Asia. These hybrid camels had one extra-long hump and were larger and stronger than either of their parents.

Camels have been domestic animals for thousands of years. Arabian camels may once have lived wild in Arabia, but none of them live in the wild today. There are several million Arabian camels, and most of them live with the desert people of Africa and Asia. The first Bactrian camels probably lived in Mongolia and in Turkestan, which was called Bactria in ancient times. A few hundred wild Bactrian camels may still roam in some parts of Mongolia, and over a million domesticated ones live in Asia.

Scientists believe that members of the camel family lived in North America at least 40 million years ago. Before the Ice Age, camels had developed into a distinct species and had moved westward across Alaska to western Asia. In Asia, two groups separated and gradually became the two chief kinds of camels known today. Meanwhile, smaller members of the camel family had moved southward from North to South America. Today, four members of the camel family live in South America: (1) alpacas, (2) guanacos, (3) llamas, and (4) vicunas. By the time Europeans went to North America, no members of the camel family had lived there for many thousands of years. No one knows why they disappeared.

The first dromedary (one-humped) camel was imported into Australia in 1840. This ill-fated animal took part in an expedition into the northern part of South Australia. It was destroyed after accidentally causing its owner’s death. Later, large numbers of camels were imported into Australia for exploration and station work in the arid interior. About 250,000 camels still roam wild in the central Australian deserts.

A camel stands from 1.8 to just over 2 metres tall at the shoulders, and weighs from 250 to 680 kilograms. Its rope like tail is over 50 centimetres long. Camels seem larger than they are because of their thick, woolly fur, which may be all shades of brown, from nearly white to almost black. An Arabian camel’s fur is short and helps protect its body from the heat. A Bactrian camel’s fur is longer. It may grow about 25 centimetres long on the animal’s head, neck, and humps.

All camels lose their fur in spring and grow a new coat. A camel looks sleek and slender for several weeks after losing its coat, but a thick coat of new fur grows by autumn.

Camels have callus like bare spots on their chests and on their leg joints. These spots look as though the hair has been rubbed off, but they are natural and not signs of wear. Even young camels have them. Thick, leathery skin grows there and becomes tough when the animal is about five months old.

A camel has large eyes on the sides of its head. Each eye is protected by long, curly eyelashes that keep out sand. In the daytime, when the sun is high, the eyes do not allow excessive light in. Glands supply the eyes with a great deal of water to keep them moist. Thick eyebrows shield the eyes from the desert sun.

The camel’s small, rounded ears are located far back on its head. The ears are covered with hair, even on the inside. The hair helps keep out sand or dust that might blow into the animal’s ears. A camel can hear well, but, like the donkey, it often pays no attention when given a command.

The camel has a large mouth and 34 strong, sharp teeth. It can use the teeth as weapons. A camel owner may cover the animal’s mouth with a muzzle to keep it from biting. A working camel cannot wear a bit and bridle, as a horse does, because its mouth must be free to chew cud (regurgitated food). Instead, a rope for leading the animal is fastened through a hole near the camel’s nose.

The hump of a camel is mostly a lump of fat. Bands of strong tissue hold pads of fat together, forming the hump above the backbone. The hump of a healthy, well-fed camel may weigh 35 kilograms or more.

Most kinds of animals store fat in their bodies, but only camels keep most of their fat in a hump. If food is hard to find, the fat in the hump provides energy for the animal. If a camel is starving, its hump shrinks. The hump may even slip off the animal’s back and hang down on its side. After the camel has had a few weeks’ rest and food, its hump becomes firm and plump again. The hump is not a storage place for water, as many people believe.

Camels have long, strong legs. Powerful muscles in the upper part of the legs allow the animals to carry heavy loads for long distances. A camel can carry as much as 450 kilograms, but the usual load weighs about 150 kilograms. While working, the animals typically travel about 40 kilometres a day, at a speed of 5 kilometres an hour.

Camels usually walk, especially if it is hot, but when they must go faster they either gallop or pace. The pace is a medium-speed movement in which both legs on the same side rise and fall together. This leg action produces a swaying, rocking motion that makes some riders “seasick.” Camels are sometimes called “ships of the desert.”

The tough, leathery skin pads on a camel’s legs act as cushions when the animal kneels to rest. The camel bends its front legs and drops to its knees. Then it folds its hind legs and sinks to the ground. To get up, the camel straightens its hind legs and then jerks up its front legs. A camel can lie down and get up again even with a heavy load on its back.

Camels have two toes on each foot. A hoof that looks like a toenail grows at the front of each toe. Cows, horses, and many other animals walk on their hoofs. But a camel walks on a broad pad that connects its two long toes. This cushion like pad spreads when the camel places its foot on the ground. The pad supports the animal on loose sand in much the same way that a snowshoe helps a person walk on snow. The camel’s cushioned feet make almost no sound when the animal walks or runs.

REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Seasonal sexual activity occurs in both the males (Bulls) and females (Cows). Increasing daylight is believed to activate the breeding urge.

FEMALES

Sexual activity can commence at 2-3 years, however the first calf is not normally born until the cow is 5 years old. Breeding continues on an average every 2-3 years until the cow is 20 years old. The average cow produces 8 calves. Pregnancy length depends on the season, (food availability, stress, etc.) Varying from approximately 374 days (12.5 months) to 419 days (14 months). Ovulation is induced by coitus (mating) and the average cycle is 27 days.

MALES

Bulls become sexually mature at 3-4 years. In Australia mature bulls commence rutting around August to October. The rutting bull will return from the bachelor herd to dominate the cowherd and any other males in the area. Alternatively he will drive off some of the cows and establish his own harem. The length of an individual Camels rut varies from 2-4 months depending on, his nutritional state and dominance. Periods of rut are nutritionally and physically demanding and severe weight loss occurs. This has the effect of ceasing the rut of that bull and consequently several dominant bulls are active throughout the breeding season. Scattered small cowherds reform into large herds at the end of the rut.

GROWTH

The birth weight of calf is between 30-40 kg. Weaning weight at 1 year is about 150-180 kg, and mature weight is 500-600 kg. on average, reached at 6-7 years.

The weights of mature Camels processed at the Wamboden Abattoir, Alice Springs, have ranged from 514-635 kg. for bulls and for cows 470-510 kg. Animals of an estimated 5 years of age had a live weight of approximately 340-430 kg.

FEEDING HABITS

Camels are browsers, with a split upper lip well suited to this purpose. They are normally selective feeders and eat the freshest vegetation available. In a study carried out by Doerges and Heuckes, on Newhaven station, they observed the Camels ate 81.5% of the available plant species. Grasses are eaten primarily after rain, and before herbs and forbs are available. At times when the moisture content is high Camels can exist for several months without drinking water. They do however perish in drought, where there is no surface water and the moisture content of plants is low.

Wild Camels are mobile feeders and frequent remote salt lakes where plants high in electrolyte and moisture are present. (Calandrina sp, Portucla sp.) . Domestic or yard fed Camels need a diet high in bulk. They are quite adaptable to the gradual introduction of supplementary and pelletized food to their diets. In the wild, or feral state they search for plants high in salts. In a yarded situation access to salt is thus considered essential.

HEALTH

Australia is free of most of the serious diseases of Camels. Quarantine restrictions imposed during the import period, 1866-1907, effectively prevented the introduction of, surra, foot and mouth, and other major diseases. Importation of Camels into Australia ceased due to the detection of foot and mouth in camels headed for Australia from Pakistan in 1907.

The main disease problems are mange (scabies), nasal bots and abscesses due to Corynebacterium sp. Test on several hundred, controlled and uncontrolled Camels at the N.T. Government Veterinary Laboratories showed that both, the wild and local herds are free from, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Trichomoniasis, Vibriosis, Johnes’ diseases and Liver Fluke.

A female camel carries a single young, called a calf, inside her body for about 13 months before giving birth. The calf’s eyes are open at birth, and a thick, woolly coat covers its body. The calf can run when it is only a few hours old, and it calls to its mother with a soft “baa” somewhat like that of a lamb. The young camel and its mother live together for several years unless they are forcibly kept apart.

When a calf is about a year old, its owner begins to teach it to stand and kneel on command. The young camel also learns to carry a saddle or small, light packs. The size and weight of the packs are gradually increased as the camel grows older. A 5-year-old camel can carry a full load.

Camels can go for days or even weeks with little or no food or water. Desert people feed their camels dates, grass, and such grains as wheat and oats. In zoos, the animals eat hay and dry grains–about 3.5 kilograms of each every day. When a camel travels across the desert, food may be hard to find. The animal may have to live on dried leaves, seeds, and whatever desert plants it can find. A camel can eat a thorny twig without hurting its mouth. The lining of the mouth is so tough that the sharp thorns cannot push through the skin. If food is very scarce, a camel will eat anything–bones, fish, meat, leather, and even its owner’s tent.

A camel does not chew its food well before swallowing it. The animal’s stomach has three sections, one of which stores the poorly chewed food. This food, or cud, is later returned to the mouth in a ball-like glob, and the camel chews it. The chewed food is then swallowed and goes to the other parts of the stomach to be completely digested. Camels, deer, cattle, and other kinds of animals that digest their food in this way are called ruminants.

A camel can go without water for days or even months. The amount of water a camel drinks varies with the time of year and with the weather. Camels need less water in winter when the weather is cool and the plants they eat contain more moisture than in summer. Camels that graze in the Sahara can go all winter without water and may refuse to drink if water is offered to them. But a large, thirsty camel can drink as much as 200 litres a day. This water is not stored in the camel’s body but replaces water previously used up.

A camel needs little water each day because it gets some moisture from its food. Also, it keeps most of the water that is in its body. Most animals sweat when hot, and the evaporation of the water from their skin keeps them cool. But camels do not sweat much. Instead, their body temperature rises by as much as 6 Celsius degrees during the heat of the day and then cools down at night. In people, an increase of only one or two degrees is a sign of illness.

On extremely hot days, a camel keeps as cool as possible by resting rather than feeding. It may lie down in a shady place or face the sun so that only a small part of its body receives the sun’s rays. A group of camels may fight off heat by pressing against each other, because the body temperatures of the camels may be lower than the air temperature.

The Old World camels fall basically into two species, the Arabian and the Bactrian. Linnaeus named the two species known as Camelus dromedarius and Camelus bactrianus. The Arabian camels have one hump on their backs and the Bactrian have two humps. They both live in desert areas. There are still Bactrian camels that exist in the Gobi desert as wild animals, but their numbers are dwindling due to human encroachment.

The Arabian camels no longer have wild relatives but exist as domesticated animals. It has been suggested that they are actually derived from the Bactrian camels and lost one of their humps in the process of domestication. Archeologists think that domestication took place in the middle or southern part of the Arabian Peninsula about 3,000 B.C. From there, they moved to other parts of the Middle East and eventually into North Africa. They are used: as pack animals; for human transport; and as a source of wool, hides, meat and milk. Some are used for racing competitions. Today, there are several breeds. The most popular and well known breed is the dromedary. Other riding breeds include the Mehari of the Sahara and the Mahri of Pakistan.

An interesting part of the use of camels had been their introduction into countries far from their origin. Today, they are seldom transported to other countries other than for exhibit. Small land owners prefer the smaller, more easily cared for and more tractable South American camelids. Some of the more notable introductions have occurred in the last 200 years. They took place in Tuscany, Spain, Australia, the Canary Islands and South America. In the U.S., they have been introduced in Virginia and in the desert areas of Arizona and Nevada.

Although there are environmental conditions in other parts of the world that can support these animals, the most successful introductions were in Australia. They were first imported from India by the British in 1860 and 1866. The camels became very important in the development of the interior of the country. Camel trains carried supplies to the outback mining and ranching stations, and aided in the general exploration and construction of transcontinental telegraph lines and railroads. After the use of autos and trucks began to make the camel obsolete, they were turned loose and established feral herds. Although they do not eat the same foods as cattle and sheep, some ranchers consider them vermin.

Certainly some of the more interesting characteristics of camels are the physiological changes that have taken place to allow them to live in such dry environments. They exhibit several notable adaptations: long eye lashes that protect their eyes from sand, control of the opening of the nostrils, a body structure that allows the animals to stand above the hot sand and allow for heat loss, and the ability to reach tall forage. The body temperature of the animal can fluctuate between 93 and 105 F; therefore, sweating is reduced. Their ability to withstand water deprivation is truly remarkable and stems from several factors. They don’t over heat, can withstand water loss, and store fats in the hump for use in times of food and water deprivation. In times of dehydration, the water seems to be lost from tissues, but not blood. For this reason there is no circulatory distress and the animals can sustain a loss of up to 25% of their body weight. (Humans lose water from blood and tissue and will die of sluggish circulation at a loss of 12% of their body water.) Camels can also re-hydrate very quickly. They are considered quite bad-tempered animals that are unintelligent, untrustworthy and can render a nasty bite. Their adult teeth are similar to the fangs of a canine.

Arabian Camels

They are big animals. They can stand 6 feet at the shoulder and weigh about 1100 pounds. As pack animals, they can carry up to approximately 400 pounds. They have not changed much from their wild ancestors. They are a little larger and have larger humps. There is some color variation in the domestic breeds, and they are not very distinct. There are two general types of dromedaries among the many breeds. They have been selectively bred as strong pack and draught animals, or as long legged riding and racing camels such as the Mehari of North Africa. The geographic range for Arabians is Northern Africa and the Middle East. The Arabian overlaps with the Bactrian camel in the areas of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Southwest Asia.

Bactrian Camels

The Bactrian camels of Central Asia, China, and Mongolia are important to the indigenous people. They follow their herds of horses and other grazing animals. They are much heavier, used as pack and draught animals, and can withstand the very low temperatures of the winter and the high temperatures of the summer. They are also stocky, and much more hairy and wooly than the Arabian species. They are used as a source of milk and meat. Their dried dung is used as fuel.

The Mouth and Upper Throat

Camels have a prehensile and split upper lip which is used for selectively grasping plant parts. The lower lip is large and pendulous. The upper dental pad is hard and hornlike in texture. The membrane of the inner cheek is covered with conical papillae which point backwards. The hard palate is long and the soft palate (<<dula’*>) is extensible d is often protruded from the mouth, particularly in the rutting male. The tongue is small but very mobile and has five. To seven papillae of large diameter along each side. Dentition differs from that of the true ruminants in that there are incisors in the upper jaw and both upper and lower jaws have canine teeth (cactuses,). The salivary glands are similar to those of other ruminating animals.

Pharynx and Oesophagus

The pharynx is a long and narrow tube whit a constriction partly dividing it into two chambers. The oesophagus is 1-2 m. long and of large capacity: it has secreting glands which apparently function to moisturize the food.

Stomachs

The camelids have only three distinct chambers in the stomach. They differ from the Ruminant in gross anatomy in that there is no clear distinction between the third and fourth chambers. Although it is conventional to refer to the different parts of the camel stomach by the same terminology as used for true ruminants, it is not certain that the parts which perform analogous functions are truly homologous. The <<glandular sac>> aorfe tahse rumen, once considered to be the water store of the camel, consist of a number of

Small chambers separated by folds of mucosa. The mucosa is covered by a columnar epithelium which has up to 100 million short tubular glands. Similar areas are found in the reticulum and the omasum. These glands probably act as absorption and fermentation areas, as well as areas of

Secretion of enzymes. The stomach of true ruminants does not have analogous mucosa. The rumen essentially performs the same functions as in the Ruminant and its contents are normally equivalent to 11 to 15 per cent of total body weight. In tylopods the oesophagus enters directly into the

Rumen while in ruminants it joins the stomach between the rumen and the reticulum. The ruminant reticulum has a honeycomb-like appearance while that of tylopods is of glandular sac appearance.

Intestines

The small intestine is about 40 m. in length in a full grown one-humped camel. A common duct from the pancreas and the liver opens into the looped duodenum. The jejunum is large and occupies most of the abdomen. There

Is a chain of mesenteric lymph nodes along the jejunum? The lymph nodes of the ileum are associated with those of the large intestine. The large intestine is about 20 m. in length in the dromedary and has a blind caecum attached to the mesentery. The colon is of large diameter over about 4 m of its length and is situated on the left side of the abdomen in a large mesenteric fold. The site of much water resorption is where the colon narrows. The lymph supply of the large intestine is concentrated at the entry and near the terminal part where the colon becomes the rectum.

Liver, Pancreas and Spleen

The liver is markedly lobulated with much interlobular tissue. There is no gall bladder. The bile duct is common with the pancreatic duct as it enters the duodenum. The spleen is not attached to the diaphragm but high to the left side of the rumen. The peritoneum is similar to that of cattle.

The natural food of Old World camels derives from browse, many of these being leguminous trees and shrubs and many being salt bush plants of the family Chenopodiaceous and similar family&. Dromedaries take as much as 90 percent of their diet under semi-natural conditiofrnosm browse plants. In general this is even ore than that taken by goats from this source. An important feature of camels’ browsing habits is that they are not in direct competition with other domestic stock either in termos f the type of feed eaten or in the height at which they eat above the ground. Feeds selected by camels are usually high in moisture, nitrogen, electrolytes and oxalates. Acacias, Balanites, Salsola and Tamarix are important constituents of the dromedary diet wherever these plants are found. Under open range conditions camels tend to move rapidly from one feeding station to the next and they are thus able to exploit a wide variety of plants and of plant

Parts. Ingestion rates can be rapid where preferred or selected browse is plentiful but are much slower on thorny species that have little leaf. Feeding times required may be as much as 15 or more hours per day, as recent studies have shown that total dry matter intake needs to be about 4 per

Cent of body- weight. A mature dromedary weighing 650 Kg. would thus require more than 25 Kg. of dry matter,

Which might represent between 80 and 100 Kg. of total food intake of plants with high moisture contents? In general, it would appear that camels can achieve these amounts of intake provided they are not required to do too much walking to and from the grazing area. The imposition of work obviously restricts the amount of time available for feeding and thus total feed intake. Camels can overcome this problem, provided work is not continuous, by eating in excess of their immediate needs and storing the extra as fat in the hump.

Camels have a normal requirement for minerals, most often which they appear to obtain from their natural regime but where saltbush is not a part of the diet the animals usually have to be taken, at various times of the year, to a salt cure of feed, water or earth. Although minerals other than salt rarely present a problem, disorders can arise in camels from an imbalance in the calcium/phosphorus ratio. A metabolic disorder, own as akrafft, due to this imbalance is well known in North Africa

Water

The dromedary is the subject of myth and legend regarding its supposed water storing abilities. Not the dromedary, nor any other of the camels, contains large quantities of water. Dromedaries are extremely efficient at Storing water because of their physiological, anatomical and behavioral adaptations. Their efficiency in conserving water is, however, in inverse proportion to the use they are allowed to make of these adaptations and the imposition of work or other forms of stress greatly reduces their ability.

The major mechanism of the camel in conserving water is the range in body temperature which may rise by as much as7″ C during the day. This reduces the need to shed the heat load by sweating or panting and the excess heat is dissipated in the cooler night temperatures without loss of water. By this and other methods camels can go not only for the commonly quoted four to seven days without water but on occasions for several months. Water requirements of camel in relation to body size and normal functions do not differ greatly from other animals. After severe dehydration amounting to 30 percent of the initial body weight, as much as 90.1 of water can be drunk in a very short time.

Maintenance

Maintenance requirements are those required to keep and animal’s body functioning in a stable state. In grazing animals maintenance can also be considered to include ‘the requirements for movement while feeding.

Milk production

The demands for milk production are high in terms of energy. The requirement for one liter of milkis equivalent to almost 10 per cent of the maintenance requirement. In terms of protein, milk is even more demanding of nutrients and one liter requires about 20 per cent of the maintenance

Requirement of a 400 Kg. female. The daily requirement of 15 Kg. of milk could not be met from free range grazing and a concentrated feed would be required. If recent claims of 40 liter yields are to be believed, it would be of great practical interest to have a clear statement of the feed intake of these animals.

Meat production

It has been claimed the camels fatten rapidly when fed 15 to 20 Kg. of a mixture of straw, beet pulp silage, molasses and 10 to 15 per cent barley grains and that camels feeding on growing sugar beet tops gains as much as 1.5 Kg. per day and can be made ready for slaughter in 60 days. Corroborative work is needed to determine if these rates can be repeated but it should always be borne in mind that the comparative advantage of the camel is in harsh environments. High quality feeds are probably better fed to

Advanced ruminants in this context.

Work

Camels appear to be at least as efficient asother traction animals in producing draught power but their main work output is in the form of pack transport. Energy is the main nutrient loss in any form of work and this need to be replaced by food, if camels produced an output of 455 watts

And energy is converted to power at an efficiency of 20 percent, the energy expended isequivalent to 8, 2 MJ per hour.Although it is reasonable to assume that pack animals expend similar amounts of energy for a similar

Output, no data are available. Working camels on supplementary feed usually have an excess of protein provided, while milking camels are usually deficient in protein supply. Camels in traditional herds are normally expected to provide work for short periods at a time and it is possible this is due to a lack of energy; this suggestion is supported by the fact that in these herds it is only male baggager camels that are normally provided with supplementary feed.

It is not a simple task to age a camel. Camels can be aged up to 7 years.

The camel has 22 milk teeth and 32 permanent teeth. It is different to other ruminants in having two front teeth in the upper jaw. Camels also have a pair of canine (dog teeth) in both the upper and lower jaws which are used to crush woody plants for food. The first pair of permanent cheek teeth are separate from the other teeth and are dark in colour.

The Milk Teeth of the Camel

The camel has 22 milk teeth arranged as:

Ageing camels from the milk teeth

The Permanent Teeth

There are 34 permanent teeth. These are larger than the milk teeth and are arranged as follows:

Ageing camels after 1 year of age

The canines appear at 6 years of age and by the age of 7 are very large. These teeth in the upper jaw can be 4 centimetres long. The lower ones may be cut off by some camel owners. Camels can live to around 40 years of age but from 15 years of age they will have difficulty with hard feedstuffs as the front teeth wear and begin to spread.

Breeding Camels

The camel is unlike other animals as the female only has young every two years. During the breeding season the male camels rut and become aggressive and dangerous.

Rutting in the Male Camel

The male camel becomes mature and will mate at 6 years of age. There is a breeding season (time) when mating takes place. The breeding season depends on availability of pasture, rain and cold and will vary from region to region The male and female camels become restless and difficult to handle in the breeding season.

During the breeding season the male ruts. The signs of rutting are:

The back portion of the roof of the mouth is pushed out of the mouth like a pink ball (this only occurs in the one-humped camel).

The testicles become bigger.

Glands on the neck behind the head begin to produce a brown, bad smelling matter.

The animal will spread out its back legs and using the tail sprays urine over its back legs.

The male becomes difficult to handle and dangerous when rutting. It will attack other animals and people. Some animals, especially older males, constantly rut and become a problem. Such animals should be castrated and if there are any male animals that will not be needed for breeding they should be castrated at an early age. Ask your veterinary officer to castrate these animals.

Heat (Oestrus) in Camels

The female comes into heat for the first time when she is 3 to 4 years old. The camel can continue to breed until she is 20 to 30 years old.

The female will show a desire for mating over a 3 to 4 day period during the breeding season. If she does not become pregnant she will come into heat again every 28 days and will have 5 periods of heat in any breeding season.

Pregnancy

When a female camel is pregnant she will run away from any male which approaches her. Pregnancy lasts 390 days in the one-humped camel and lasts 406 days in the two-humped camel.

If there is plenty of feed available the young camel can be taken from its mother at 6 weeks of age and she can be mated again to produce young the next year. However productivity is low for most camels and they usually produce one young every two years.

Giving Birth (parturition) in Camels

The signs that the female is about to give birth are similar to those in other ruminants. The female becomes restless, the vulva is swollen and she will separate from the other animals. Birth commences with the appearance of the water bag followed by the two front legs and the head.

The size of the newborn camel is dependent on the size of its parents. The average calf weighs around 35 kilograms and the male is larger than the female. The camel born in dry (bad) years will weigh less than the young animal born in a good year.

The mother does not bite through the navel cord neither does she lick and clean her baby, but she will help the young to find the teats to take milk. The camel is a very good mother and does not like anyone to go near her young.

If the female loses her young she will become very distressed. In order to keep the female producing milk the skin should be taken from the young camel and stuffed with straw. The female will continue to produce milk for her “baby”. Neither the one-humped or the two-humped camel will accept orphaned young. Orphans will have to be reared by hand.

Milk and care of the young camel

Young camels start to eat grass at 2 to 3 months of age and can be weaned by 4 months of age. Leaving the calf to suckle for longer than this reduces the amount of milk available for people.

The Production of young from the Camel

A female camel will usually give birth to one young every 2 years. This means that a female will normally produce 8 young throughout her life. This is a very poor rate of reproduction.

Many young camels die before or soon after birth because:

The mother was not fed well during pregnancy.

Some camel owners do not allow the calf to take colostrum.

The male and female were related with perhaps the same mother and father. This is called inbreeding and will result in the production of dead or weak young in any type of animal. You should keep a record of the males used for breeding to try to avoid this happening.

Colostrum

It is essential for the young camel to take colostrum from its mother in order to be protected against some diseases. The mother produces colostrum for 4 to 5 days after birth. Many camel owners do not allow the young camel to freely suckle because they believe this causes the young to suffer from belly pain and diarrhoea. Some owners will prevent the young camel from taking any colostrum and this can lead to its death. You should allow the young animal to take colostrum.

Weaning the young Camel

The young camel will start to eat grass when it is 2 to 3 months old and can be weaned when it is 4 months old. Many owners leave the young camel with its mother until it is at least a year old. If it is weaned early care must be taken to introduce it slowly to solid food in order to avoid diarrhoea developing and also to prevent it picking up internal parasites.

Milk Yield and Quality

If the young camel is allowed to suckle from its mother for 1 to 2 years the amount of milk available to the owner is reduced. If it is not allowed to suckle whenever it wants, milk can be taken from the mother and the young animal can be gradually weaned to solid food. A young camel that is allowed to take milk whenever it wants becomes fat and may have difficulty in walking. It will also suffer when it is finally taken from its mother.

The camel can produce milk for 9 to 18 months. Camel milk contains the necessary proteins, sugars, fats, minerals and vitamins for the young and is a valuable food for people.

The quality and quantity of milk produced by the camel will depend on the availability of water and feed, how often she is milked and when she gave birth. A camel will give 4 to 12 kilograms of milk daily. The milk will be sweet or salty in taste depending on the plants the animal feeds on.

Camel milk is a rich source of vitamin C and forms an important source of this vitamin for desert people who are unable get this vital vitamin from fruits and vegetables.

Camel milk may be the only available milk in desert conditions where other milking animals cannot be maintained. In some countries camels are kept for their milk which is not only used for drinking but can be made into a number of foods. If camel milk is mixed with the milk of other animals e.g. cow, goat, it can be made into cheese, yoghurt and butter. Milk from the two-humped camel is used for cheese and butter.

Camels are like goats and can browse, eating bushes and the branches of trees. Like cattle and sheep they also graze on grass. The camel browses or grazes for 8 hours each day and will take another 6 to 8 hours to chew the cud. They can be fed like cattle and will eat straw, hay, silage, grains and cakes.

The camel can eat sharp, thorny plants which other animals cannot eat. Camels can reach branches of trees and bushes to a height of 3 metres. The camel eats these woody plants by using its strong canine (dog) teeth to crush the wood.

In dry seasons when feed becomes scarce the camel can live off the fat which is stored in the hump. It can survive in this way for a very long period and will lose weight as the fat is used. A camel can lose up to 200 kg in weight during this period.

Camels recognise poisonous plants growing in the area and will not eat them. However if the camel is moved to a new area where different poisonous plants are found then it may eat those plants.

Water

The camel is well known for its ability to withstand thirst and to go without water for a long time. The camel can do this because:

• It can change its body temperature to as low as 34°C and as high as 41°C
• Camels produce small amounts of urine which is (concentrated) thick

If the camel is kept near a water point or a river it may drink small amounts of water daily. In cold weather, and when green feed is available, the camel may not drink water for months because it can get all the water it needs from the plants. In dry seasons camels drink up to 60 litres of water every 10 days. A thirsty camel in a hot dry season can drink up to 200 litres of water in one go.

Salt

Salt is very important for the camel. It needs eight times as much salt as do cattle and sheep. A camel needs 1 kg of salt a week and it is advisable to leave salt with camels every week.

Surra of Camels (Trypanosomiasis)

A well kept and well fed camel will rarely suffer health problems which the owner is unable to deal with. Surra (trypanosomiasis) is one of the diseases of camels for which you may need veterinary assistance. You may need advice from the veterinary officer about treatment of the disease and he may need to take blood samples from the animal in order to check for the disease.

Surra is a very common disease of camels and it has many different names in the areas of the world where it occurs. The disease is caused by very small parasites, called trypanosomes, which live in the blood of the animal.

The disease is spread by flies, e.g. horse flies, which bite the camel and carry the parasites from one animal to another. These flies cannot live where it is cold or dry and are found near water or around areas of dung. Camels should be kept away from such places especially when the flies are common after rain.

Signs of the Surra

All camel owners are familiar with this disease. Sick animals may develop a fever and do not eat. They are weak and the belly and legs become swollen. Pregnant animals can lose their young. If animals are not treated they can die within a few weeks of showing the first signs of infection. Other animals may stay sick for many months or even years. They are weak and the hump becomes smaller and smaller. These animals can develop skin problems and most suffer from lung diseases. They will usually stand facing the sun.

Internal Parasites of Camels

The infernal parasites of the camel are similar to those of sheep and cattle. Camels infected with infernal parasites are weak, have poor appetite, may have diarrhoea and do not put on weight. Young animals will suffer the most from any parasite.

Camels can be infected with different roundworms in the gut. These feed off the animal. Camels can also be infected with worms in the lungs and flukes which infect the liver.

When camels are slaughtered (killed) large cysts, fluid filled bags, may be found in the liver, lungs and other organs. These cysts contain many young tapeworms which will infect meat-eating animals.

Problems caused by Internal Parasites

The parasites in the gut cause weight loss, weakness and may cause diarrhoea and death especially in the young animal. Lungworms will cause breathing problems and infected animals develop a short, sharp cough.

The tapeworm cysts which are found in the camel will develop into adult worms if eaten by dogs, foxes or wolves.

The cysts cause damage to the body organs of the camel. Cysts in the brain will result in the animal being unable to walk or eat properly. Infected animals walk in circles; they may also become blind. However the main problem is that humans can be infected as well as the camel.

Skin Diseases of Camels

Infections of the skin caused by parasites are a big problem in camels. Camels can be infected by ticks and mites, and suffer from fly maggots feeding on wounds and in the nose. If it is not treated mange (mite infection) can lead to the death of a camel. Mange is very infectious and is second to surra in causing problems and losses in camels. Mange also results in the loss of valuable wool from llamas and alpacas.

Skin Infections of Camels

Camels suffer from infections with mites and ticks, and the maggots of flies which feed on open wounds or live in the nose.

Mites cause mange and infections often start on the neck, head or underbelly of the animal but will rapidly spread to cover the entire body if not treated.

Camels can be attacked by many different ticks. Ticks will usually be found attached to the legs, head and the underbelly.

If wounds are left untreated they will become infected with the maggots of different flies which feed on the blood and meat. The camel is also infected by maggots of the camel nasal fly. The fly lays its eggs around the nose of the camel and the maggots, which grow to about 1 centimetre long, hatch and feed on the inside of the animal’s nose.

Ringworm infections cause roundish, white spots on the head, neck and other parts of the body.

Mange in the Camel

Mange in camels, like surra, is a very important disease and is very infectious. Camels are infected by contact with infected animals, from mites on saddles and other equipment, and by rolling in dust where infected animals have been. Humans can also become infected.

The mange mite burrows into the skin and causes loss of hair and the skin becomes thick and white. Infection often starts on the head or neck, but if not quickly treated it will spread over the entire body in 2 to 3 weeks. Infected animals scratch against any solid object and do not eat well. Weight loss occurs, milk production drops and animals can die. The infection is more common in colder months and when feed is scarce.

Problems caused by Fly Maggots

Fly maggots can prevent healing of wounds and other germs may infect the wound. The maggots of the camel nasal fly are usually seen in the spring and summer. There is a discharge from the nose and the animal may sneeze. Camels are not usually seriously affected by the maggots but the activity of the adult flies

The camel’s foot is adapted for sandy soils and can be described as a tyre filled with fat instead of air.

In these days the camel walks on tarred, hard surfaced roads and ground which is littered with sharp objects such as nails, wire and broken glass. These may cause damage to the foot and result in lameness.

Viral Diseases

Camel pox is the main viral disease. There are regular outbreaks among the young camels. It is mainly a benign ailment seen mostly on the lips, head and other soft parts of the skin.

Foot-and-mouth disease is sporadically found, but on the whole the animals are unaffected. Even in wide-spread cases of the disease among cattle, no antibodies were found in the camels. A virulent outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease, which greatly affected sheep, goats and cattle did not affect the camels, although they were in close contact (Evans and Powys, 1979).

Bacterial Diseases

Anthrax which causes a swelling of the superficial lymph glands and almonellosis are two acute bacterial infections found in camels. Camels with severe symptoms of anthrax have been killed for food without causing an outbreak of the disease.

Brucellosis is not a well-identified clinical entity. Abortions are frequent but have not been found to be caused by brucellosis. Although tests have not been conclusive, brucellosis appears to be a bigger problem than previously considered. More intensive husbandry will increase incidence of this disease if no proper preventive measures are taken.

Corynebacteriosis is widespread. On slaughter, lung abcesses caused by Corynebacterium are often found. Pericarditis and pleurisy are complications which are often observed.

Pulmonary-affection-complex or, as it is known, dromedary respiratory disease complex can be caused by rickettsia, virus and pasteurella infections.

Rickettsiosis: could be an important zoonotic disease. This was determined serologically because, as yet, it has not been demonstrated clinically.

Parasitic diseases are dominant in camels, both internally and externally. Trypanosomiasis can cause deaths, but is manifested as a chronic, periodically febrile disease. It leads to abortions, premature births, and inability to feed the young. Reproduction is thus greatly reduced. The causative organism is Trypanosoma evansil.

Helminthiasis hydatidosis is endemic in certain areas of the world. Large cysts are found in lungs, liver and spleen. It is a zoonotic problem of proportions far greater than has been documented and further research is needed. Prevention and treatment are simple.

Myiasis is a seasonal problem, as are camel bots, which are found in the nasopharynx.

trying to lay eggs is annoying.

Foot Problems in Camels

Camels are remarkable animals that have evolved with a ruminant like digestive system to enable them to survive on low quality, fibrous feeds. Being browsers, camels are able to select high quality diets, which they can efficiently digest.

Camels have lower energy requirements than ruminants, and have evolved an efficient mechanism for nutrient recycling.

Camels have the ability to perform muscular functions such as racing at a level of intensity that exceeds the ability of horses. This unique capacity reflects the lower energy requirements for locomotion, the higher glucose supply, the lower oxygen demand, and preferential dependence on slow twitch muscle fibres which in turn rely on aerobic metabolic pathways.

For short distance, high intensity races, camels need high energy feeds to meet the additional energy demand. As with both horses and cattle, inclusion of high levels of grain in camel diets can cause metabolic disorders. Oil supplements provide energy, however the slow rate of metabolism of traditional polyunsaturated oils makes them of limited use in short distance, anaerobic metabolism races.

By comparison, tropical oils such as coconut oil are rich in medium chain fatty acids which are readily absorbed and metabolised providing an available source of cool energy.

The opportunity is to feed racing camels Cool Stance® to provide readily metabolisable energy, without causing carbohydrate overload. EzyCube® provides digestible fibre and cool energy.

1.   Background

Little research has been done on the digestive physiology and nutrition of camels. Camels are pseudo-ruminants, with a simple chambered forestomach, and is unlike the four chambered stomach found in cattle and sheep. Never the less, camels can digest high fibre feeds via fermentation pathways similar to those in true ruminants.

Camel racing is a major sport in the Middle East, with camel races over distances from over 5 to 40 km. Even though camels are pseudoruminants, the expectation is that they perform like a horse. Horses can sustain high levels of muscular exercise, because of the power to weight ratio, the balance of muscle fibre types (fast twitch and slow twitch fibres) and the forms of energy provided  by digestion.  Horses rely on energy sources which provide an immediate supply of ATP for explosive/intense muscular function. These energy sources include carbohydrates, oils, and muscle glycogen.

By comparison, ruminants rely primarily on volatile fatty acids from rumen fermentation to provide energy. These energy sources generally do not provide an immediate supply of ATP to support explosive muscular function for racing.

In practical terms, ruminants are unable to sustain intense muscular exercise and fatigue quickly. By comparison, horses can sustain both high levels of intense muscular exercise, and long term endurance exercise.

The challenge therefore is to feed camels (a pseudo-ruminant) to produce energy sources which support intense muscular exercise to enable them to perform like a horse.

2.   Camel racing

Camel race distances vary from 5km to over 40km. Camels naturally pace, and can maintain average speeds 35-40 km/hour for considerable distances, and for over 30-60 minutes. Camels can gallop at speeds well over 40km/hour, however they tire easily.

By comparison, the track record for the 3200m Melbourne Cup is held by Kingston Rule in 1990 – 3 minutes 16.3 secs, or 60km per hour.  Over a 10 to 40 km distance, horses would average approximately 20-25 km/hour.  Therefore even though camels are pseudo-ruminants, they have the capability to race at speeds similar to horses,  over longer distances, and for much longer times.

Camels are a member of the suborder Tylopoda, which is located between the suborders Suina (including pigs) and Ruminantia (including cattle).  Camels have adapted to the harsh arid environments inhabit allowing them to maximise the digestion of low quality feeds to a greater extent than ruminants. Through browsing, camels are able to select a high quality diet. There is a lack of research into camel nutrition and data is often extrapolated from ruminants.

With racing camels, the aim is to feed a pseudo-ruminant to perform like a horse.  That is, to provide digestible energy (DE) to supplement the energy from roughage to meet the energy demands for high intensity exercise. In horses, the additional DE is traditionally provided by feeding grains together with digestible fiber. It is now known that feeding high levels of starch to both ruminants and horses is the main cause of temperament changes (fizzy or hot behavior), and metabolic disorders including colic, laminitis and tying up. The effects of starch have been alleviated in most cases by replacement of dietary starch with digestible fiber and non starch, energy feeds such as oil. Anecdotal evidence suggests that camels also suffer from temperament changes and metabolic disorders on high grain diets.

Rumen

The mucosal membrane of the “rumen” in camels is smooth, which is different to all other ruminants. The rumen sacculations contain accessory salivary glands which aid in recycling to the rumen during periods of water deprivation.  Like ruminants, the camel “rumen” contains bacteria and protozoa.

The recycled saliva is very alkaline, and subsequently the pH of the rumen is normally pH 7.5. In the wild, the camels can browse most types of vegetation, and the rumen can operate as an efficient organ. With hand feeding grains and short chopped roughages however, the incidence of rumen dysfunction is greater.

The omasum in camels is also very different to that in cattle. The mucous membrane is glandular, and is not packed in leaves as seen in cattle. It is joined directly to the abomasum, and the contents are moist. This contributes to the higher efficiency of digestion in camels.

Physiology of Exercise

The energy cost of locomotion in camels is considerably lower than horses at moderate to high speeds. At 15km per hour, the horse requires 25% higher energy, and at 30km/hour, the horse requires 50% more energy than camels.  The energy cost of locomotion (ml O2/kg at 22 km/hour) was 85 in camels compared with 160 in horses.

The lower energy cost for locomotion in camels relates to the combined effects of

1. Musculoskeletal function. Unlike cattle, camels have less fusion in the bones of the lower leg which allows them to move faster and more efficiently (Ferguson 1997)
2. camels pace rather than gallop,
3. Low oxygen requirement. The maximal capacity of an animal to exercise aerobically is determined by oxygen consumption. VO2max is a measure of aerobic capacity, and is the volume of oxygen consumed during a minute of exercise. The aerobic capacity of camels (VO2max) was 53ml/kg/min at 30km/hour, which is significantly lower than that in thoroughbreds (100-160 ml/kg/min). The VO2max in cattle was 55-60 ml/kg/min. This reflects the very low oxygen requirement of camels for rest and exercise in comparison with horses
4. Higher lactate threshold. Camels can perform at high levels of intensity before lactate accumulates in the blood. It is considered that 4mM/L of serum lactate represents the anaerobic threshold in many species, i.e. the level of exercise above which aerobic exercise is supplemented by anaerobic exercise. The Lactate Threshold is the level of exercise beyond which the rate of lactate production from pyruvate exceeds the rate that pyruvate is used in aerobic energy metabolism in the mitochondria. The accumulation of lactate causes a block to energy production, and rapid muscle fatigue.

Camels will perform at up to 95% of VO2max before plasma lactate levels reach 4 mM/L, whereas this occurs in other species at 50-60% VO2max.  Elite horses have lactate thresholds at or above 80% of VO2max. Camels can achieve this normally.

1. At rest, the racing camel depends on lipid combustion to provide energy substrates. At low, sub maximal speeds, carbohydrates are the dominant fuels, and there is a good balance between lactate metabolism and accumulation, because lactate does not accumulate until close to VO2max. Camel has extraordinarily high Krebbs cycle activity.

Muscle Fibers

There is a large variation between muscle types, and between camels in the proportion of Type I and Type II muscle fibers. Camels predominantly have slow twitch, slow contracting fibers (Type I) suitable for endurance exercise. Type II, fast acting fibers (for explosive exercise) is not common. Camel muscles have very high levels of oxidative enzymes compared to horses. Camels can utilize various types of energy substrate for ATP production for muscular activity, i.e. glycogen, oil, glucose, lactate, and amino acids.

Endurance

During endurance exercise (20km/hour for 90 minutes), camels preferentially use slow twitch muscles (Type I), which use aerobic metabolic pathways to supply ATP from glycogen and fat.

High Intensity Exercise

High intensity exercise in camels is in an 8 km race where speeds exceed 33 km/hour. During high intensity exercise, camels use fast twitch (Type II) fibers, and rely on anaerobic metabolism of glucose to produce ATP.  Once anaerobic metabolism is activated, metabolic acidosis due to lactate accumulation quickly occurs. Camels take longer than horses to clear lactate; however they can quickly restore muscle glycogen.

In horses sprinting over short distance races, the aerobic energy system still provides up to 70% of the total energy. This emphasizes the importance of the type of energy substrates supplied to support the aerobic energy system and anaerobic energy systems.

Energy systems to provide energy for exercise

Camels have a continual energy demand for maintenance and muscular performance.  The form of energy in the muscle cell is adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and is the only energy source that can be used for muscular contraction. ATP is stored only to a limited extent in cells, and so ATP must be produced from other sources by chemical reactions. These sources of ATP include creatinine phosphate (which is converted directly to ATP) or feed sources (glucose, fats and proteins). ATP is supplied from the feed sources either by aerobic or anaerobic chemical pathways.

Aerobic Metabolism

Aerobic metabolism is the use of oxygen to burn fuels (carbohydrate/fat) to supply ATP.  This energy source yields high levels of ATP, but more slowly than the anaerobic system. This is the main energy source for endurance and low intensity exercise.

Anaerobic Metabolism

Anaerobic metabolism produces ATP very rapidly from glucose/ glycogen without the use of oxygen, and produces lactic acid. Lactic acid production of the muscle causes muscle fatigue. The rate of energy production is very high, and is the main energy source for explosive or sprint energy. The total contribution of the anaerobic system even under intense exercise is only 30%.

Camels have an inherent capacity for anaerobic activity, and can clear lactate efficiently.  The challenge is to increase glucose supply to the racing camel, without causing starch overload, and metabolic disorders. ATP sources such gluconeogenic amino acids, and medium chain fatty acids provide an alternate to starch based diets.

Feed Intake and Digestibility

Camels have a lower dry matter intake than cattle or horses. Camels typically consume only 1.7% of bodyweight as dry matter, compared with 3-4% bodyweight for horses and cattle. Camels require 70% of dry matter intake as roughage. Camels typically have higher digestibility coefficients compared with ruminants.

Camels can efficiently digest low quality roughage’s because of the wide range of ruminal micro flora which can adapt to a range of forages, active rumination, and high levels of urea recycling.

Fermentation

Camels produce the volatile fatty acids acetate, propionate and butyrate from fermentation in their fore stomach, in similar molar proportions to ruminants given roughage based diets. Compared with ruminants, camels can extract more energy from the food they consume. This has been attributed to their specialized metabolism of glucose and urea recycling.

Energy

The ME requirement for maintenance in camels is lower than for cattle. A 450kg camel requires only 37 MJ ME for maintenance compared with 52 MJ ME for cattle.  The DE requirement for a 450kg horse is 48 MJ DE/day, which approximates 40 MJ ME/day. Camels therefore have an energy requirement similar to horses for maintenance.

Racing camels have an energy requirement of 2 MJ ME/ km travelled, i.e. an additional 20 MJ ME for an average 10km race. For feeds with an energy density of less than 10, this represents an additional feed intake of over 2 kg/day, which is a 25% increase in feed intake. The challenge therefore is to increase energy intake without increasing the amount of bulky feed, and without causing rumen dysfunction by feeding excess grain.

Camels, like horses have an increased energy demand for muscular function for racing, which requires supplementation of the basal diet with an additional energy source from hay or grain.

Glucose metabolism

The blood glucose concentrations (130 mg/100ml) in camels are much higher than in ruminants (63 mg/100ml) and horses (90 mg/100ml) (Table 1), despite having a ruminant pattern of digestion which does not yield glucose for absorption.

Although the glucose turnover rate is similar between camels and sheep (1.7 mg/min/kg bodyweight), when corrected for metabolic body size, camels have a glucose entry rate at least 60% greater than in sheep (4.3 and 2.6 mg/min/kg Bwt 0.75).

Camels have higher concentrations of the hormone glucagon compared with other mammals. The role of glucagon is to increase glucose output from the liver by increasing glycogenolysis (glucose from glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (glucose from amino acids).

Camels therefore produce greater quantities of glucose compared with true ruminants, presumably as a survival mechanism. This also allows camels to produce higher levels of ATP from glucose for muscular function, and highlights the importance of feeds that can provide glucose or glucose forming substrates (gluconeogenic amino acids).

Oil

Camels can store fat efficiently in their hump, and in the adequately fed camel, the hump can represent 20% of the camel’s total body weight.  The oxidation of fat in adipose tissue yields more energy (1g fat=9.3 kcal) than the oxidation of carbohydrates (1g=4.2 kcal).

Racing camels require an additional 2.0 MJ ME /km travelled, and therefore require an additional energy dense feed in addition to roughage. It has been suggested that inclusion of energy dense oils in racing camel diets may be beneficial. Up to 200g/day of protected fat has been fed without causing metabolic and nutritional disorders. Little research has been conducted however into the type and nature of dietary oil.

Oils are useful feed supplements to provide slow release energy for endurance exercise, or long distance races.  It is believed that camels don’t begin to metabolize fat stores until after a period of 1.5 hrs of sub maximal exercise (20km) suggesting that energy provided by fats is only of importance for endurance races. It is further suggested that oils are of no value for short races (8-10km) because of the slow metabolism of oils.

Research suggests that the maximum oil inclusion in camel diets is 3%, because of the effects of oil on reducing fermentation. There is no information available on feeding different types of oils to camels.

In cattle, it is the free fatty acid concentrations that impact on rumen fermentation, and not the total fat concentration. In ruminants, rumen function is impaired at free fatty acids (FFA) at levels greater than 3-4% in the diet. For example, polyunsaturated oils such as canola and soybean contain approximately 80% FFA, and so can only be fed at 3-4% of the diet. By comparison, saturated oils such as coconut oil contain only 30- 35% FFA, and so can be fed up to 9-10% of the diet.

In horses, polyunsaturated oils which are long chain (C18) are slowly absorbed into the lymphatics and then slowly metabolized in the liver. By comparison, medium chain fatty acids (C12-C14) such as in coconut oil are readily absorbed into the portal blood and metabolized in the liver.

Saturated oils such as coconut oils have been shown to be beneficial energy sources to both cattle and horses, and may well be beneficial to racing camels as an energy substrate. Coconut oils can be fed at higher levels, and are more readily digested and absorbed compared to polyunsaturated oils.

Protein

Basal protein requirements in camels (450 kg bodyweight) have been estimated at 300g DCP / day for adult working and racing camels.

Nitrogen retention in camels is greater than sheep given a diet of 4% crude protein. During a state of dehydration the camel’s nitrogen retention is increased by 150%, whereas in sheep it is only increased by an increment of 34%. Supplementation of urea has found to have a variable effect on the VFA producing microbes in the camel.

Camels recycle greater quantities of urea to the rumen, which in turn would support higher levels of digestion. It is reported that young camels given low protein diets respond well to supplements of bypass protein, as shown with weaned sheep and cattle. Proteins with a high biological value give the best results.

Grain feeding

The main source of roughage for the racing camel is fresh cut alfalfa. Typically, much of the camel’s energy is derived from barley. A normal diet for the racing camel consists of “10kg of alfalfa tops, 3-4kg of soaked whole barley, 1kg dates, 2L of fresh milk, occasional hay, and some electrolyte, vitamin and mineral supplements”.

Although camels perform well on these diets, they often suffer digestive upsets including colic and rumen dysfunction, similar to grain poisoning in cattle.

Comparison of camels with cattle and horses (450kg)

Bloat (tympany)

Bloat occurs when too much gas is produced in the rumen.
The left flank becomes distended and breathing becomes difficult.
This may happen suddenly, especially when the animal is grazing on wet pasture in the morning. It may cause sudden death.

The animals continually belch, once each minute, to get rid of the gas. Occasionally belching stops and gas builds up in the rumen to cause bloat. As the gas builds up the left flank balloons out. The pain from this causes the animal to try to kick its belly or it stands with its back legs wide apart. It has difficulty in breathing. The animal may be in distress for several hours but in bad cases of bloat the animal will be found lying on its side and death can occur in a few hours.

Causes of bloat

Bloat can occur when the animal grazes on lush young pasture, particularly if the pasture is wet. Some plants, e.g. clover, lucerne and alfalfa are especially dangerous in causing bloat but any fast growing plants can cause it. Sometimes ruminants kept by the household and fed only feed such as dry bread can develop bloat.

Treatment for Bloat

Making the animal belch is one way of treating bloat. You can do this by:

Massaging the distended rumen through the abdominal wall.

Tying a stick in the mouth, crosswise like a horse’s bit.

Tickling the throat.

Make the animal walk around for about half an hour.

Determining Age of Cattle

(1) Under two years old (No permanent teeth)
(2) Two years three months (2 permanent teeth)
(3) Three years old (4 permanent teeth)
(4) Three years six months (6 permanent teeth)
(5) Four years (8 permanent teeth)
(6) Old animal, over four years old.

Determining Age of Buffalo

(1) Under three years old (no permanent teeth)
(2) Two years six months (2 permanent teeth)
(3) Three years six months (4 permanent teeth)
(4) Four years six months (6 permanent teeth)
(5) Five to six years (8 permanent teeth)
(6) Old animal

Foot (hoof) Care

There is an old saying “No foot, no animal”. This is true as untrimmed feet lead to bad legs and the animal cannot graze properly and will lose condition. The feet should be regularly examined and trimmed. Remember to make any cuts in a direction away from your body or the hand holding the foot.

Overgrown feet

The hoof is like your fingernail and grows continuously. Walking wears the hoof down but sometimes the hoof grows very quickly and becomes overgrown. In some places where the ground is too wet the foot can get infected and it becomes smelly and painful. This condition is called foot rot and the animal can become lame. When animals have infected or overgrown feet they cannot walk and graze properly.

Castration of ruminants
Castration is the destruction or removal of the testicles of the male. It is carried out on animals which are not wanted for breeding. Castrated animals are quiet (do not fight). Some countries insist on all imported animals being castrated.

Traditionally farmers or animal raisers do not castrate animals and both males and females are allowed to mix together. The result is that poor males are allowed to mate with the females and the young stock produced are not very good. Uncastrated males also fight so it is better to castrate the animals which are not the best for breeding. The best time to castrate animals is when they are very young (a few days old). If castration is carried out then, the operation is easier and more successful and the wound heals (gets better) very quickly.

Cattle Plague (rinderpest) and Foot and Mouth Disease

Ruminants, especially young animals, can suffer from a variety of diseases. Rinderpest (cattle plague) is highly infectious and can kill cattle and buffalo. Foot and mouth disease is very common in many countries. It affects cattle, sheep, buffalo and goats. These two diseases are very important. Rinderpest occurs in Asia, the Middle East and Africa while foot and mouth disease occurs all over the world except in Australia, New Zealand, North America and now Western Europe.

Cattle Plague (Rinderpest)

The signs of rinderpest infection in cattle and buffalo are:

First stage is a high fever (40.5°C to 41.5°C).

Red patches appear on the vagina or scrotum followed by patches on the lips, nostrils and around the eyes.

In buffalo the first sign of the disease is a discharge from the eye.

The patches develop pus (yellowish matter) in them.

Frothy saliva comes from the mouth.

The animal suffers from constipation (can not pass dung) followed by diarrhoea. The important sign is the bad smell of the dung.

After a few days the animal dies

Rinderpest is a highly infectious disease and can kill many animals especially cattle and buffalo. The disease is mainly spread through the drinking water which has been infected by the dung of sick animals but it can also spread by direct contact and in the breath. The disease affects wild animals and pigs. Deaths of wild pigs can be a sign that rinderpest is present in the area.

Foot and mouth disease

The signs of infection with foot and mouth disease are:

First stage is a high temperature.

Small blisters (bags of skin filled with fluid) appear in the mouth and on the tongue, between the claws, around the hoof and on the teats.

The blister will break and the skin over it is lost to give reddish patches.

Saliva will be produced but the animal has difficulty in eating.

The hoof may come off and the animal will be lame.

There are a few diseases which have similar signs to foot and mouth disease.

This feed has been especially formulated for all camels at rest, in light work or in the first stages of training. The mix provides energy from digestible fibre, combined with readily available energy from unprocessed natural cereals. The mix also provides all the essential nutrients required for optimum health and performance.

This feed should be fed to female camels to enhance the quality and quantity of the milk yield. The mix contains all the necessary proteins, vitamins, minerals and trace elements to support milk production over an extended period.

This feed has been formulated according to the most recent scientific research which relates athletic performance to the nutrition of camels. Ingredients used in this mix are of the highest quality and are designed to complement the forage in the camel’s diet. The energy density and micronutrients included are at optimum levels to ensure the best possible performance from racing camels in hard work.

This feed adjust the environment of the rumen during and after feeding in racing camels so that the risks that cause ruminitis are reduced and appetite, digestion and performance are improved and increases the racing potential in camels during short and medium distance races.

This feed has been formulated according to the most recent scientific research which relates athletic performance to the nutrition of camels. Ingredients used in this mix are of the highest quality and are designed to complement the forage in the camel’s diet. The energy density and micronutrients included are at optimum levels to ensure the best possible performance from racing camels in hard work.

This feed adjust the environment of the rumen during and after feeding in racing camels so that the risks that cause ruminitis are reduced and appetite, digestion and performance are improved and increases the racing potential in camels during short and medium distance races

                                All Yembroos® Camel Feeds should be given with good quality forage and clean water

Breeding Camel feed has been formulated according to the most recent scientific research which relates to Breeding Camel Nutritional Requisites. Ingredients used in this mix are of the highest quality and are designed to complement the forage in the camel’s diet. The energy density and micronutrients included are at optimum levels to ensure the best possible performance during Breeding Period.

Designed to meet not only the heavy demands of the Mother, but also to encourage optimum fetal development and bone formation of the unborn calf. This food will also be very suitable for growing/working males.

                       All Yembroos Camel Feeds should be given with good quality forage and clean water

All Yembroos Camel Feeds should be given with good quality forage and clean water

All Yembroos Camel Feeds should be given with good quality forage and clean water